The topic of this paper was chosen out of the conviction that humanity is
suffering today from a number of serious social problems related to women and to
the interrelations of the two sexes in society. Although these problems may be
more pronounced, disturbing, more debilitating for some of us than for others,
there are probably few if any regions of the contemporary world whose citizens
have not felt in some way the repercussions of these problems. Therefore, there
is a pressing need for exploring possible solutions. The problem of women is
linked, for the present study, with the Qur'an, and what I have called the
"Qur'anic society," out of strong conviction that the Qur'an offers the most
viable suggestions for contemporary social reform which can be found in any
model or any literature. Many of you may be puzzled by the title of this
paper-"Women in a Qur'anic Society." You may ask yourselves, "Why didn't she say
"Women in Muslim Society" or even "Women in an Islamic Society?" Let me explain
why the expressions "Muslim" and "Islamic" were rejected for this paper, and how
the use of the rather unusual appellation, "Qur'anic society," is justified.
There are at least three reasons for my choice of that title. The first of these
derives from the concern that many beliefs and practices have been labelled
"Muslim" or "Islamic" without warranting those names. There are approximately 40
nations of the world which claim to have a Muslim majority population and
therefore to be exemplary of "Muslim" or "Islamic" societies. This of course
results in a great deal of confusion as the question is asked: Which of these
regions represents most faithfully the true "Islamic" society? Among Muslims
that question is most frequently answered by the claim that their own national
or regional society is the truest to the intentions of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala.
Non-Muslims, on the other hand, and especially the Western anthropologists who
travel around the world to investigate the customs and mores of its peoples,
tend to treat each variation within the Muslim World as equally valid. This
results from their adherence to what I call the "zoo theory" of knowledge.
Adherents of that theory regard all Muslims-and of course similar treatment of
other non-Western people is discernible-as different species within the human
zoo. The "zoo theory" protagonists go to the field, record and snap pictures of
every strange or exotic practice they see and hear; and for them, this is Islam
or Islamic practice. A trip to another part of the Muslim World with the
ubiquitous devices for recording and photographing generates a different body of
materials documenting superficial variations in customs. But this, too, is Islam
or Islamic practice for the "zoo theory" investigator or ethnographer. There is
far too little effort spent on understanding Islam as a whole. As a result, the
basic premise of scepticism and relativism is confirmed in the mind of the
researcher; and he/she returns home convinced that there is not one Islam, but
scores of Islams existent in the world. In like fashion, the researcher reports
that there are many definitions or descriptions of the status and role of women
in Muslim society. Each one of the resultant definitions or descriptions is
dubbed as "Muslim" or "Islamic" even if we as Muslims may hold some of these
practices to be distortions or perversions of our principles and beliefs by the
misguided or uninformed among us.
It was partly to avoid confusion with these variant descriptions and
misunderstandings that I have chosen the appellation "Qur'anic" for the present
discussion. In this way, I hope to move beyond the limited relevance and
particularism of a "zoo theory" of investigation to a presentation which avoids
such fragmentation and is ideologically in conformance with the true
prescriptions of Islam. In regard to matters so determining of our destiny and
very existence, we can never be satisfied with mere reportage about certain
human animals in the "zoo" who are statistically "Muslim" or whose customs have
been labelled as "Islamic." Those designations have sometimes been misapplied.
"Qur'anic," on the other hand, is a term which is unequivocal. It points clearly
to the topic of this paper.
Secondly, "Qur'anic society" was judged to be the most suitable title for it
orients us towards discovering those core principles in the Qur'an itself which
form the underlying framework for our societies throughout the Muslim World. It
is the society based on Qur'anic principles which is the goal of all of us, even
though we may unknowingly deviate from time to time from those principles. It is
the conformance to a Qur'an-based society for which we must all work if the
Muslim peoples are to enjoy a felicitous future. It is not an Indonesian,
Pakistani, Saudi Arabian, Egyptian or Nigerian version of that society that we
should regard as indisputable norm, but one firmly based on the teachings of the
Holy Qur'an. Only therein can we find a proper definition of woman's role in
society. Since it is these teachings which are the subject of my paper, "Women
in a Qur'anic Society" seemed the most proper title.
Thirdly, I wish by this choice of title to emphasize that we should regard the
Holy Qur'an as our guide in all aspects of our lives. It is not only the prime
source of knowledge about religious beliefs, obligations, and practices, it is
also the guide, whether specific or implied, for every aspect of Islamic
civilization. In the centuries of past glory, it determined the political,
economic, social and artistic creativity of the Muslim peoples. If we are to
succeed as members of an Islamic society in the coming decades and centuries, it
must again determine our thinking and our actions in an all-inclusive way. Din
is not limited to the Five Pillars of the shahadah, salat, siyam, zakat, and the
hajj. Din in fact defies simple equation with the English term "religion," for
the former's significance penetrates into every nook and cranny of human
existence and behaviour. Surely it should be our goal to relate every action to
our Din. We can only do this by allowing the Holy Qur'an to in-form and re-form
every realm of our lives.
As a step in this direction, let us consider what the Qur'an has to teach us
about the society towards which we should be striving, and ponder its effect on
the position of women. What are the basic characteristics of a Qur'anic society
which particularly affect women?
Five characteristics - which seem basic, crucial and incontrovertible - of
Qur'anic society will be considered. Although they are presented in a series,
each one rests upon the others and affects them. The interdependence of these
five characteristics makes it difficult to speak of any one of them without
mention of the others, and of course they do not and cannot exist in isolation
from one another.
1. Equal Status and Worth of the Sexes
The first of these characteristics of a Qur'anic society which affect women is
that both sexes are held to be equal in status and worth. In other words, the
Qur'an teaches us that women and men are all creatures of Allah, existing on a
level of equal worth and value, although their equal importance does not
substantiate a claim for their equivalence or perfect identity. This equality of
male and female is documentable in the Qur'an in passages pertaining to at least
four aspects of human existence and interaction.
A. Religious Matters
The first of these Qur'anic confirmations of male-female equality are contained
in statements pertaining to such religious matters as the origins of humanity,
or to religious obligations and rewards.
1. Origins of Humanity. The Qur'an is devoid of the stories found in the
Old Testament which denigrate women. There is no hint that the first woman
created by God is a creature of lesser worth than the first male, or that she is
a kind of appendage formed from one of his ribs. Instead, male and female are
created, we read, min nafsin wahidatin ("from a single soul or self") to
complement each other (Qur'an 4:1; 7:189). Whereas the Torah or Old Testament
treats Eve as the temptress of the Garden of Eden, who aids Satan in enticing
Adam to disobey God, the Qur'an deals with the pair with perfect equity. Both
are equally guilty of sinning; both are equally punished by God with expulsion
from the Garden; and both are equally forgiven when they repent.
2. Religious Obligations and Rewards. The Qur'an is not less clear in
commanding equality for men and women in its directives regarding religious
obligations and rewards. We read:
Lo! Men who surrender unto Allah, and women who surrender, and men who believe
and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey, and men who speak
the truth and women who speak the truth, and men who persevere (in
righteousness) and women who persevere and men who are humble and women who are
humble, and men who give aims and women who give alms, and men who fast and
women who fast, and men who guard their modesty and women who guard (their
modesty), and men who remember Allah and women who remember-Allah hath prepared
for them forgiveness and a vast reward. (33:35)
B. Ethical Obligations and Rewards
Secondly, the Qur'an reveals to mankind the desired equality of the two sexes by
establishing the same ethical obligations and rewards for women and men.
And who so does good works, whether male or female, and he (or she) is a
believer, such will enter Paradise and they will not be wronged the dint in a
date-stone. (4:124)
Whosoever does right, whether male or female, and is a believer, him verily We
shall quicken with good life, and We shall pay them a recompense according to
the best of what they do. (16:97)
If Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala had not deemed the two sexes of equal status and
value, such explicit statements of their equality in ethical obligations and
rewards would not have been made in the Qur'an.
C. Education
Although the more specific commands for the equal rights of women and men to
pursue education can be found in the hadith literature, the Qur'an does at least
imply the pursuit of knowledge by all Muslims regardless of their sex. For
example, it repeatedly commands all readers to read, to recite, to think, to
contemplate, as well as to learn from the signs (ayat) of Allah in nature. In
fact, the very first revelation to Prophet Muhammad (S) was concerned with
knowledge. In a Qur'anic society, there can never be a restriction of this
knowledge to one sex. It is the duty of every Muslim and every Muslimah to
pursue knowledge throughout life, even if it should lead the seeker to China, we
are told. The Prophet (S) even commanded that the slave girls be educated, and
he asked Shifa' bint 'Abdillah to instruct his wife Hafsah bint 'Umar. Lectures
of the Prophet (S) were attended by audiences of both men and women; and by the
time of the Prophet's death, there were many women scholars.
D. Legal Rights
A fourth evidence in the Qur'an for the equality of men and women is its
specification of legal rights which are guaranteed for every individual from
cradle to grave. Unlike the situation in the West, where until the last century
it was impossible for a married woman to hold property on her own, to contract
with other persons, or to dispose of her property without the consent of her
husband, the Qur'an proclaims the right of every woman to buy and sell, to
contract and to earn, and to hold and manage her own money and property. In
addition to these rights, the Qur'an grants woman a share in the inheritance of
the family (4:7-11), warns against depriving her of that inheritance (4:19),
specifies that the dower (mahr) of her marriage should belong to her alone and
never be taken by her husband (2:229; 4:19-21,25) unless offered by the woman as
a free gift (4:44).
As with any privilege, these rights of women carry corresponding
responsibilities. If she commits a civil offence, the Qur'an tells us, woman's
penalty is no less or no more than that of a man in a similar case (5:41; 24:2).
If she is wronged or harmed, she is entitled to compensation just like a man.
It is clear that the Qur'an not only recommends, but is even insistent upon, the
equality of women and men as an essential characteristic of a Qur'anic society.
The claim of the non-Muslim critics that Islam denigrates women is denied
emphatically by the Qur'an. Similarly denied are the arguments of certain
Muslims that women are religiously, intellectually and ethically inferior to
men, as Jewish and Christian literatures had earlier maintained.
2. A Dual Sex rather than Unisex Society
Now let us consider the second basic characteristic of the Qur'anic society
which affects the position of women. This is found in the directives for a dual
sex rather than a unisex society. While maintaining the validity of the equal
worth of men and women, the Qur'an does not judge this equality to mean
equivalence or identity of the sexes.
Probably all of you are familiar with the contemporary move toward unisex
clothes and shoes, unisex jewellery and hair styles, unisex actions and
entertainments. In fact, it is often difficult in America to decide whether one
is looking at a boy or a girl. This results from the current notion in Western
society that there is little if any difference between the two sexes in
physical, intellectual and emotional endowment; and that, therefore, there
should be no difference in their functions and roles in society. The dress and
the actions are but superficial evidence of this deeper conviction. Accompanied
by a downgrading of the qualities and roles traditionally associated with the
female sex, this current idea has generated a unisex society in which only the
male role is respected and pursued. Although meant to bring a larger measure of
equality for women, the idea that men and women are not only equal, but
equivalent and identical, has actually pushed women into imitating men and even
despising their womanhood. Thus it is generating a new type of male chauvinism.
Tremendous social pressures have resulted in stripping women of their
role-responsibilities formerly performed by them, and they are forced to live a
life devoid of personality and individuality.
The society based on the Qur'an is, in contrast, a dual-sex society in which
both sexes are assigned their special responsibilities. This assures the healthy
functioning of the society for the benefit of all its members. This division of
labour imposes on men more economic responsibilities (2:233, 240-241; 4:34),
while women are expected to play their role in childbearing and rearing (2:233;
7:189). The Qur'an, recognising the importance of this complementary sexual
assignment of roles and responsibilities, alleviates the greater economic
demands made on male members of the population by allotting them a larger share
than women in inheritance. At the same time it grants women the right to
maintenance in exchange for her contribution to the physical and emotional well
being of the family and to the care she provides in the rearing of children. The
unisex ideology generates a competitive relationship between the sexes which we
find in America and which is disastrous for all members of society: the young;
the old; the children; the parents; the single and the married; the male and the
female. The dual-sex society, by contrast, is a more natural answer to the
question of sexual relationships, a plan encouraging co-operation rather than
competition between the sexes. It is a plan which has been found suitable in
countless societies through history. Only in very recent times did the idea of
sexual non-differentiation or identity achieve prominence, and then primarily in
the Western society. Even the medical evidence for mental or emotional
difference between the sexes is suppressed in Western research, for it threatens
the prevailing trends of thought. How long this socially disastrous movement
will continue before it is rejected as bankrupt is not known. But certainly we
as Muslims should be aware of its deficiencies and dangerous consequences, and
make our societies and young people aware of the disaster caused by it.
Protagonists of the unisex society have condemned the dual-sex human
organisation as dangerous for the well-being of women. If dual sex means that
one sex is superior to the other, such a situation could have arisen. But in the
true Qur'anic society, toward which we all aspire to move, this is not possible.
As we have seen above, the Qur'an advocates eloquently the equal status of women
and men at the same time as it recognises their generally relevant differences
of nature and function. Thus while acknowledging the religious, ethical,
intellectual and legal equality of males and females, the Qur'an never regards
the two sexes as identical or equivalent. It justifies this stand in its
assignment of variant responsibilities and its provisions regarding inheritance
and maintenance which match those responsibilities.
3. Interdependence of the Members of Society
The third characteristic of the Qur'anic society which is strongly assertive of
women's position is the insistence on the interdependence of the members of
society. Contrary to the contemporary trend to emphasize the rights of the
individual at the expense of society, we find the Qur'an repeatedly emphasising
the interdependence of the male and female as well as of all members of society.
The wife and husband, for example, are described as "garments" (libas) of each
other (2:187), and as mates living and dwelling in tranquillity (33:21;see also
7:189). Men and women are directed to complement each other, not to compete with
each other. They are the protectors of each other (9:71). Each is called upon to
fulfil certain assigned responsibilities for the good of both and the larger
group.
In order to insure this interdependence which is so necessary for the physical
and psychological well-being of both men and women, Allah, in the Holy Qur'an,
stipulated the reciprocal or mutual duties and obligations of the various
members of the family-men and women, fathers and mothers, children and elders,
and relatives of all degrees (17:23-26; 4:1, 7-12; 2:177; 8:41; 16:90; etc.).
The care of and concern for other members of society is equally a duty of the
Muslim.
It is not righteousness that you turn faces to the east and the west; but
righteous is he who believes in Allah and the Last Day and the angels and the
Scripture and the prophets; and gives his wealth, for love of Him, to kinsfolk
and to orphans and the needy and the wayfarer and to those who ask, and to set
slaves free ... (2:177)
The Qur'an thereby instils in the Muslim a sense of a place within, and
responsibility to society. This is not regarded or experienced as a repression
of the individual. Instead the Muslim is constantly encouraged in this
interdependence by experiencing the benefits it brings. The economic, social and
psychological advantages of such close relationships and concerns within the
social group provide more than ample compensation for the individual to
sublimate his/her individualistic aspirations. The anonymity and lack of social
interdependence among its members in contemporary Western society have caused
many serious problems. Loneliness, inadequate care of the aged, the generation
gap, high suicide rates, and juvenile crime can all be traced back to the
ever-worsening breakdown of social interdependence and the denial of the human
necessity for mutual care.
4. The Extended Family
Closely intertwined with interdependence is the fourth basic characteristic of
the Qur'anic society which serves to improve male-female relations. This is the
institution of the extended family. In addition to the members of the nucleus
that constitutes the family- mother, father and their children-the Islamic
family or 'a'ilah also includes grandparents, uncles, aunts and their offspring.
Normally Muslim families are "residentially extended;" that is, their members
live communally with three or more generations of relatives in a single building
or compound. Even where this residential version of the extended family is not
possible or adhered to, family connections reaching far beyond the nuclear unit
are evident in strong psychological, social, economic and even political ties.
The extended family solidarity is prescribed and strengthened by the Holy
Qur'an, where we find repeated references to the rights of kin (17:23-26; 4:7-9;
8:41; 24:22; etc.) and the importance of treating them with kindness (2 :83; 16:
90; etc.). Inheritance portions, for not only the nuclear family members but
those of the extended family as well, are specifically prescribed (2:180-182;
4:33,176). Dire punishment is threatened for those who ignore these measures for
intra-family support (4:7-12). The extended family of Islamic culture is thus
not merely a product of social conditions, it is an institution anchored in the
word of God Himself and buttressed by Qur'anic advice and rules.
The extended family is an institution which can provide tremendous benefits for
both women and men when it exists in conjunction with the other basic
characteristics of a Qur'anic society.
1) It guards against the selfishness or eccentricity of any one party, since the
individual faces not a single spouse but a whole family of peers, elders and
children if he or she goes "off course."
2) It allows for careers for women without detriment to themselves, spouse,
children or elders, since there are always other adults in the home to assist
the working wife or mother. Career women in an Islamic extended family suffer
neither the physical and emotional burden of overwork nor the feeling of guilt
for neglecting maternal, marital or familial responsibilities. In fact, without
this sort of family institution, it is impossible to imagine any feasible
solution for the problems now facing Western society. As more and more women
enter the work force, the nuclear family is unable to sustain the needs of its
members. The difficulties in the single parent family are of course magnified a
hundred-fold. The strain that such family systems put on the working woman are
devastating to the individual as well as to the marriage and family bonds. The
dissolutions of families which result and psychological and social ramifications
of the high divorce rate in America and other Western nations are the growing
concern of doctors, lawyers, psychiatrists and sociologists as well as, of
course, of the unfortunate victims of these phenomena.
3) The extended family insures the adequate socialisation of children. A
mother's or father's advice in a nuclear or single parent family may be
difficult to be followed by an unruly or obstinate child, but the combined
pressure of the members of a strong extended family is an effective counter to
non-conformance or disobedience.
4) The extended family provides for psychological and social diversity in
companionship for adults as well as children. Since there is less dependence on
the one-to-one relationship, there are less emotional demands on each member of
the family. A disagreement or clash between adults, children or between persons
of different generations does not reach the damaging proportions it may in the
nuclear family. There are always alternative family members on hand to ease the
pain and provide therapeutic counselling and companionship. Even the marriage
bond is not put to the enormous strains that it suffers in the nuclear family.
5) The extended family or a'ilah guards against the development of the
generation gap. This social problem arises when each age group becomes so
isolated from other generations that it finds difficulty in achieving successful
and meaningful interaction with people of a different age level. In the 'a'ilah,
three or more generations live together and constantly interact with one
another. This situation provides beneficial learning and socialisation
experiences for children and the necessary sense of security and usefulness for
the older generation.
6) The 'a'ilah eliminates the problems of loneliness which plague the isolated
and anonymous dwellers in the urban centres of many contemporary societies. The
unmarried woman, or the divorced or widowed woman in an Islamic extended family
will never suffer the problems that face such women in contemporary American
society, for example. In a Qur'anic society, there is no need for the commercial
computer dating establishments, the singles' clubs and bars, or the isolation of
senior citizens in retirement villages or old people's homes.
The social and psychological needs of the individual, whether male or female,
are cared for in the extended family.
As marriage-bonds grow more and more fragile in Western society, women tend to
be the chief victims of the change. They are less able to re-establish marriage
or other bonds than men, and they are more psychologically damaged by these
losses.
7) The extended family provides a more feasible and humane sharing of the care
of the elderly. In the nuclear family unit, the care of the elderly parent or
parents of one spouse may fall entirely on one individual, usually the mother of
the family. She must provide for the extra physical care as well as for the
emotional well-being of the elderly. This is a tremendous burden on a woman who
probably has children's and husband's needs to attend to as well. If she is a
working mother, the burden can be unmanageable; and the elderly are put in an
old peoples' home to await death. With the shared responsibilities and duties
that the extended family provides, the burden is significantly lightened .
5. A Patriarchal Family Organization
The fifth basic characteristic of a Qur'anic society is that it is patriarchal.
Contrary to the goals of the Women's Liberation movement, the Qur'an calls for a
society which assigns the ultimate leadership and decision-making role in the
family to men.
Any society is made up of smaller organisations of humans, governments,
political parties, religious organisations, commercial enterprises, extended
families, etc. Each of these organs needs to be stable, cohesive and
manoeuvrable if it is to be beneficial to its constituents. In order to acquire
these characteristics, the organisation must assign ultimate responsibility to
some individual or some group within its ranks.
Therefore, the citizens may vote, parliament may legislate, and the police may
enforce the law; but it is ultimately the head of state that carries the burden
of making the crucial decisions for the nation, as well as the onus or approval,
i.e., the responsibility, for those decisions. In like manner, the work of a
factory is conducted by many individuals, but all of them are not equally
capable of making the ultimate decisions for the company. Neither is each
employee equally charged with the responsibility for the organisation's success
or failure.
The family also has need for someone to carry the burden of ultimate
responsibility for the whole. The Qur'an has assigned this role to the most
senior male member of the family. It is this patriarchal assignment of power and
responsibility which is meant by such expressions as "wa lil rijali 'alathinna
darajatun " (2.228; see supra, pp. 40, 41), and "al-rijalu qawwdmuna 'ala al-nisa'i....
" (4:34). Contrary to misrepresentations by the Qur'an's enemies, these passages
do not mean the subjugation of women to men in a gender-based dictatorship. Such
an interpretation shows a blatant disregard of the Qur'an's repeated calls for
the equality of the sexes and for its command to show respect and kindness to
women. The passages in question point instead to a means for avoiding internal
dissension and indecision for the benefit of all family members. They advocate
for a patriarchal society.
In addition, we would draw attention to the use of the word qawwamun in the
statement, al-rijalu qawwamuna 'ala al-nisa'i ... (4:34). Certainly the verb
qawwama, from which the verbal noun qawwamun is derived, does not imply despotic
overlordship. Instead, the term refers to the one who stands up (from qama, "to
stand") for another in a protective and benevolent way. If an autocratic or
domineering role for the male half of the society had been meant, there are many
other verbal derivatives which would have been more applicable, for example,
musaytirun and muhayminun Other instances of the Qur'anic use of the term
qawwamun confirm this supportive rather than authoritarian or tyrannical meaning
of the term (see 4:127-135; 5:9). Ascription of a different significance to the
passage in question is, therefore, ideologically inconsistent as well as
linguistically unsupportable.
Why should the Qur'an specify male leadership for the 'a'ilah, i.e., a
patriarchal family, rather than a matriarchal organisation? The Qur'an answers
that question in the following manner:
Men are in charge of women, because Allah has made the one of them to excel the
other, and because they spend of their property (for the support of
women)....(4:34)
Physical and economic contributions and responsibility are, therefore, the
Qur'anic reasons for proposing a patriarchal rather than a matriarchal society.
Some Westerners, confronted by the problems of contemporary society, are
beginning to ask such questions as: Where can we turn for help? What can we do
in the face of the present social disintegration? It is a time of despair and
searching as Western society reels under the blows of steadily increasing
personal disorientation and societal dissolution.
What can we do as Muslims to help? First of all, we must build true Qur'anic
societies throughout the Muslim World. Without these, we cannot establish
equitable and viable accommodation for the interaction of men and women in
society. In addition, we cannot hope to establish in the coming generations a
respect for and loyalty to our societies and their accompanying institutions if
pseudo-Islamic societies are the only ones we are capable of producing and
maintaining. Pseudo-Islamic measures or institutions are actually anti-Islamic;
for they posit a model which cannot be respected, and attach to it the label of
"islam" in the minds of many Muslims as well as non-Muslim. this results in a
wrongful transfer of the onus of the faulty institution to the religion of Islam
itself.
We must educate our fellow Muslims-and especially the youth for they are the
leaders of tomorrow-with regard to the importance and viability of their
(Qur'anic traditions concerning women, the family and society. Despite the
failure of alternative contemporary Western social patterns, some Muslims seem
to hanker after the Western brand of sexual equality, its unisex ideas and modes
of behaviour, overemphasis on individualism or personal freedom from
responsibility, and the nuclear family system. We must awake to the dangers
which accompany such social ideas and practices. If the consequences of these
ideas and practices are not pointed out and combated, we are doomed to an
unfortunate future as such social experiments are to fail ultimately.
But even this is not an adequate response for us as Muslims. As vicegerents of
Allah on earth (2:30), it is our duty to be concerned about the whole world and
about all of God's creatures. In the light of the command to propagate the will
of Allah in every corner of the earth, we should not neglect to suggest or offer
the good that we know to others. It is time for Islam and the Muslims to present
their solutions of the problems of contemporary society, not only to the Muslim
audience, but to the non-Muslim audience as well. This can and should be done
through the living example of true Qur'anic societies in which the problems of
men and women are resolved. It should also be done through informative writings
and discussions by our scholars which could be made available to Muslims and
non-Muslims alike.
There is no better way to serve the will of Allah and the whole of mankind.
There is no better da'wah than such offering of a helping hand to the struggling
victims of contemporary society.
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